Theories of Reward and Motivation

Theories of Reward and Motivation Psychology, derived from ancient Greek roots â€Å"psyche† and â€Å"logos†, which means â€Å"mind† and â€Å"knowledge or study† respectively, is defined as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes, in which the behaviour refers to anything we do (Coon Mitterer, 2012, p. 14). Psychologists uses systematic observation to gather empirical evidence to derive a scientific theory. Not until 130 years ago, when William Wundt set up a laboratory to study conscious experience in a scientific manner, that psychology started as a science (Coon Mitterer, 2012, p. 26). For thousands of years individuals have been informally observing human behaviours. Recently, many individuals claim that the theories on human behaviours and mental processes psychologists had invested much time and effort to discover are merely â€Å"common sense† (Coon Mitterer, 2012, p. 15). For instance, performance can be improved by giving rewards, is a common sense that society perceive as the truth. However, the act of enhanced performance by giving rewards to individual is confined within a small social circle, or are derived from a person’s attempt to make sense out of their physical world (Qian Guzzetti, 2000, p. 1). The higher the value of rewards, the higher the drive levels or motivation of an individual, the better the results achieved. Rewards are generally attractive to people, and hence would force them to put in effort to obtain it. This wrong â€Å"common sense† theory which still persists today, giving rewards, especially material rewards, will enhance one’s performance, is inaccurate. This theory is first rejected by Sam Glucksberg in his experiment. In Glucksberg’s (1964) research, he investigated the influence of strength of drive (motivation) on functional fixedness strength, which is defined as a type of cognitive bias that involves a tendency to see objects as only working in a particular way (Cherry, n.d.). Glucksberg seek to prove that rewards do not allow an increase in problem-solving time. In his experiment, Glucksberg set up different scenarios to compare the effect of rewards: A group of people were tested for time taken to solve problem when offered incentives, and another when incentives are not offered. These two groups were then divided into further subgroups where the subjects put into test in two other scenarios: when the solution is more straightforward and when the solution requires more thought process. This ensured that there was no biasedness in the experiment and that the increase in functional fixedness strength was only due to incr ease in drive levels. Through this experiment, it was concluded that participants used relatively longer time to solve problems requiring more thought process when given rewards. Also, in his research, Glucksberg concluded that there was no effect of rewards on an individual when the solution to the problem is straight forward. Similar timings were recorded and the difference are relatively smaller as compared to those of complex problem solving. Throughout many years, numerous researches upon this topic had been conducted and they concluded with the same observation (e.g. Bijleveld, Custers, Aarts, 2011; Hagger Chatzisarantis, 2011; Jordon, 1986; Panagopoulos, 2013). In the society, economists generally believes that incentives enhances performance (Panagopoulos, 2013, p. 266). To this day, it has been proven many times by psychological researches, which suggest the opposite to this theory. While this is true in some cases, for example, when the task is simple and only requires memory work or has a straight forward solution (Bijleveld, Custers, Aarts, 2011, p. 865), it does not work in others. Rewards function as a barrier when individuals are faced with complex problem-solving tasks. Material rewards stale an individual’s ability to solve complex problems (Glucksberg, 1964). Glucksberg (1964), concluded in his research that rewards influence drive levels and hence impair problem-solving performance. Similarly, research has also shown that monetary incentives not only does not improves one’s performance, it might cause drastic results as well (Bijleveld, Custers, Aarts, 2011). When introduced to the monetary rewards consciously, i ndividuals tend to consciously reflect on the reward, and hence thwart one’s performance (Bijleveld, Custers, Aarts, 2011). This research has refute the effectiveness of a powerful motivator – money. Several research also assess the effect of material rewards on motivation, and results turn out to be undesirable as it actually undermines it (e.g., Hagger Chatzisarantis, 2011; Jordon, 1986). Hence giving rewards does not enhance performance in many cases. The fact that giving rewards does not enhance, or might harm performance can be explained psychologically. Individuals are unable to focus on the task when given rewards. Bijleveld, Custers and Aarts (2011) indicates that consciously perceived rewards cause people to reflect on what is at stake, hence prompt people to more strongly concentrate on task stimuli and details. However, being too focussed in the task can be harmful to an individual’s performance. Enhanced concentration might interfere with thought process and hence effective performance, for example, processing of unnecessary and irrelevant ideas, hence thwart the enhancement of performance (p.866). Presence of distractions is a reason behind divided attention, which causes problem solving cannot take place effectively. This supports the consistent finding where rewards do not result in higher performance. This can also be explained by a research done by Olivers and Nieuwenhuis (2006), that such distractions from th e main problem â€Å"is due to an overinvestment of attentional resources in stimulus processing, a suboptimal processing mode that can be counteracted by manipulations promoting divided attention† (p. 364). Hence, increased focus and concentration due to higher motivation levels, can hurt performance. It is not uncommon to observe individuals being motivated by rewards. This might be the source of the theory. However, such observations are confined to a certain fixed situation in the individual’s social setting. In this kind of observation, individuals tend to avoid taking into account of situations which is inconsistent with their â€Å"findings† (Taylor Kowalski, 2004). They are easily refuted by experiments and research as they are conducted systematically and did not come from mere human observation. Various scenarios and control experiment are involved to ensure that the results have no room for disputes. Differing from the flawed â€Å"common sense† theory of human behaviour, the results which proved that rewards does not enhance performance are unchallengeable as they are supported by facts which can be tested and reiterated by professionals (Coon Mitterer, 2012). Only by involving in psychological research can one actually see a fair and non-biased p erspective of human behaviour. Reasons behind thwart performance can be explained scientifically through experiments. They are supported by the science behind human behaviour. Therefore rewards does not give, or rather impair performance. References Bijleveld, E., Custers, R., Aarts, H. (2011). Once the money is in sight: Distinctive effects of conscious and unconscious rewards on task performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 865-869. Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is Functional Fixedness in Psychology? Retrieved from Psychology Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators Enthusiasts: http://psychology.about.com/od/problemsolving/f/functional-fixedness.htm Coon, D., Mitterer, J. (2012). Introduction to Psychology: Active learning through modules. Wadsworth, Ohio: Cengage Learning. Glucksberg, S. (1964). Problem solving: Response competition and the influence of drive. Psychological Reports, 15, 939-942. Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L. (2011). Causality orientations moderate the undermining effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 485-489. Jordon, P. C. (1986). Effects of an extrinsic reward on intrinsic motivation: A field experiment. Academy Of Management, 29(2), 405-412. Olivers, C. N., Nieuwenhuis, S. (2006). The beneficial effects of additional task load, positive effect, and instruction on the attentional blink. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 364-379. Panagopoulos, C. (2013). Extrinsic Rewards, Intrinsic Motivation and Voting. The Journal of Politics, 75(1), 266-280. Qian, G., Guzzetti, B. (2000). Conceptual change learning: A multidimentional lens. Reading Writing Quarterly, 1-3. Taylor, A., Kowalski, P. (2004). Naive psychological science: The prevalence, strength, and sources of misconceptions. The Psychological Record, 54(1), 15-25. Neo Ruo Ting

A Paper Against School Prayer

The term â€Å"school prayer† is understood to refer to a state sanctioned prayer in public school classrooms. This would mean either that the state allowed for a time of prayer in the classroom, and/or a set of allowed invocation to be led either by the teacher or one of the students.Actually, school prayer has been a part of American classrooms for more than a century until the Supreme Court ousted such a practice in 1962 and 1963 (Neiberger, par. 13). From the time that such a practice was declared to be contrary to the first amendment establishment and free exercise clauses, the issue never really died down.Some people rejoiced over the eradication of such an exercise, while others have continuously blamed the present moral crises and poor SAT scores on the elimination of school prayer (Gaylor, par. 23). In this paper, I would want to argue that the elimination of school prayer is true to the essence of the American Constitution.   I will argue on this point by showing t he constitutional and legal bases of claim.The Legal Bases of the Abolition of School PrayerThe First Amendment specifically says that â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion [known as the Establishment Clause] or prohibiting the free exercise thereof [known as the Free Exercise Clause]† (The Constitution of the United States). The Establishment Clause acts as the guardian for the separation of Church and State, while the Free Exercise Clause protects the right of individuals to practice religion or to not practice any at all (â€Å"School at Prayer: A Community at War,† par.1). The Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause guarantees the right of religious practice of everyone, and that means students included, but such a practice should not interfere nor infringe on the free exercise of others. In the school setting, this would mean that â€Å"Students have the right to engage in voluntary individual prayer that is not coerc ive and does not substantially disrupt the school's educational mission and activities† (Anti-Defamation League, par.2). This also means that teachers may not, acting in their office as teachers, promote any religion nor initiate or encourage prayer among the students: â€Å"When acting in their official capacities as representatives of the state, teachers, school administrators, and other school employees are prohibited by the Establishment Clause from encouraging or discouraging prayer, and from actively participating in such activity with students† (US Department of Education).  As a public school teacher, neutrality to religions would have to be practiced; one’s individual faith or lack of it should not intervene in the exercise of neutrality in schools. To make our point clear, we could cite some cases that should exemplify this neutrality at the same time this right to free exercise of religion. The Anti-Defamation League gave some examples so that this p oint could be understood. We would cite some of these examples.A student may, in the exercise of her religion, pray personally inside the classroom or before eating meals as long as such an exercise is neither disruptive nor coercive. This would mean that a student may not pray when being called upon for recitation. This would also mean that students may not broadcast prayers in the school intercom. Forcing other co-students to pray or to engage in some other religious activities would likewise be unconstitutional.A student-initiated and school sanctioned prayer before an athletic event or similar activities would clearly be coercive at the same time potential exclusive of students who do not practice any religion or whose religious foundations are radically different from those students who have initiated the prayer. The same caution should also be practiced by the faculty members and staff. The case of Central Valley High School football championship was cited as an exemplifying c ase.On the day of the Central Valley High School football championship, the coach gave the traditional pep talk to the Bulldogs, and afterwards asked his team to do a prayer together. Richard Nelson, an atheist student, felt uncomfortable. The coach simply told him that he could either not join in the prayer or step out for while as the remaining members of the team do their prayer. In such a case, the coach’s actuations would clearly be unconstitutional since promoting prayer would be endorsing a religion, or at the very least, religiosity. It is the coach’s responsibility to remain neutral. His actions showed partiality, and at the same time isolated Richard Nelson from the team.Another case that is worth citing would be the case of Jessica Lewis. Jessica Lewis makes it a point to pray during recess and even engages her classmates into a religious conversation. The school officials were alarmed and hence forbade Jessica from praying and engaging in religious conversa tions during recess. Actually, the school officials should not keep Jessica from praying and engaging in such conversations as long as her practices are not disruptive nor coercive.As long as she does not interfere in school activities and does not force her classmates to converse with her, there would be nothing unconstitutional in Jessica’s actions. In this case, Jessica’s acts would not constitute school prayer; it would plainly be a voluntary, personal prayer that is fully protected by the Free Exercise Clause.

The Wisest Of Socrates - 926 Words

Socrates said the examined life is only worth living. He travels vastly across Athens to search for the wisest man, but falls short at every encounter. Chaerephon went to the Oracle of Delphi to ask who the wisest man is and the response was Socrates; he is the wisest of them all. However, Socrates does not believe it because how can he be the wisest in all of Athens? Socrates questions individuals testing their wisdom and virtue, but falls short and tells everyone their dull-witted and wasting his time; leading everyone to despise him. He searches day in and day out, turning everyone into enemies along the way, eventually leading him to be on trial for his life. In the beginning of his quest, he questioned a politician, who yes was†¦show more content†¦They attempt to accuse him of unreasonable arguments just to earn the disagreement of others in the trial, since it is a democracy. When traveling from person to person, receiving the same response, he quickly earned the title of a ‘pest’. However, in his trial he defends himself by stating that he cannot hold his tongue from the daily conversation about virtue. If he didn’t converse about that daily, he believes it would be a â€Å"disobedience to the divine command†. Now-a-days, virtue is a lost cause buried by fortune and desires. People only converse negatively about each other and how much money they have; acting as if wealth defines success. Socrates saw beyond that searching for the meaning of living, the meaning of virtue, and searching for the wisest in the land. Eventually, Socrates found no one wiser than him, so he thought to himself, that maybe he is the wisest since he can admit he is not. Is the wisest man the one who questions and knows he is not wise? I believe so, because no one knows everything but they can attempt to learn for everyone with questioning. In modern times, we must question topics more thorough and question with purpose. With all the advancements in science and technology you eventually branch into ethics of what is right and wrong, but if no one questions the morals of humans, turmoil may happen. Dystopian society is our near future if thereShow MoreRelatedPlato s Five Dialogue Apology865 Words   |  4 PagesFive Dialogue Apology section, Plato records the actual speech that Socrates delivered in his own defense at the trial. Basically, Socrates is accused to the action of corrupting youth, which he taught norms and value to many people and charge a fee for it (19d6). He is also accused to the action of teaching spi ritual things, for not believing in Athens god, and last but not least, Hubris, the question of human wisdom. 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In â€Å"Apology,† Socrates learns that the wisest men are those who do not think of themselv es of wise, and rather make an approach of going beyond an authentic method of inquiry and helping othersRead MoreEssay on Comparison of Eastern and Western Philosophers803 Words   |  4 PagesComparison of Eastern and Western Philosophers I will compare the Western philosopher Socrates to the Eastern philosopher Lao Tzu. These two philosophers had some things in common with their ideas and philosophies that they pursued. Socrates was a western philosopher that lived in Athens Greece and Lao was thought to be from what is now known as the Hunan province of China. 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Biography Joshua Norton, Emperor of the United States

Joshua Abraham Norton (February 4, 1818 - January 8, 1880) declared himself Norton I, Emperor of the United States in 1859. He later added the title Protector of Mexico. Instead of being persecuted for his audacious claims, he was celebrated by the citizens of his home city of San Francisco, California, and memorialized in the literature of prominent authors. Early Life Joshua Nortons parents were English Jews who first left England to move to South Africa in 1820 as part of a government colonization scheme. They were part of a group that came to be known as the 1820 Settlers. Nortons birthdate is in some dispute, but February 4, 1818, is the best determination based on ship records and the celebration of his birthday in San Francisco. Norton emigrated to the United States somewhere around the 1849 Gold Rush in California. He entered the real estate market in San Francisco, and by 1852 he was counted as one of the wealthy, respected citizens of the city. Business Failure In December 1852, China responded to a famine by placing a ban on export of rice to other countries. It caused the price of rice in San Francisco to skyrocket. After hearing of a ship returning to California from Peru carrying 200,000 lbs. of rice, Joshua Norton attempted to corner the rice market. Shortly after he purchased the entire shipment, several other ships from Peru arrived filled with rice and the prices plummeted. Four years of litigation followed until the Supreme Court of California eventually ruled against Norton. He filed for bankruptcy in 1858. Emperor of the United States Joshua Norton disappeared for a year or so after his bankruptcy declaration. When he returned to the public spotlight, many believed he lost not only his wealth but his mind, too. On September 17, 1859, he distributed letters to newspapers around the city of San Francisco declaring himself Emperor Norton I of the United States. The San Francisco Bulletin indulged his claims and printed the statement: At the peremptory request and desire of a large majority of the citizens of these United States, I, Joshua Norton, formerly of  Algoa Bay, Cape of Good Hope, and now for the last 9 years and 10 months past of S. F., Cal., declare and proclaim myself Emperor of these U.  S.; and in virtue of the authority thereby in me vested, do hereby order and direct the representatives of the different States of the Union to assemble in Musical Hall, of this city, on the 1st day of Feb. next, then and there to make such alterations in the existing laws of the Union as may ameliorate the evils under which the country is laboring, and thereby cause confidence to exist, both at home and abroad, in our stability and integrity. Emperor Nortons multiple decrees about the dissolution of the U.S. Congress, the country itself, and abolishment of the two main political parties were ignored by the federal government and the generals leading the U.S. Army. However, he was embraced by the citizens of San Francisco. He spent most of his days walking the citys streets in a blue uniform with gold epaulets that was given to him by the U.S. Army officers based at the Presidio in San Francisco. He also wore a hat festooned with a peacock feather. He inspected the condition of roads, sidewalks, and other public property. On many occasions, he spoke on a wide range of philosophical topics. Two dogs, named Bummer and Lazarus, that reportedly accompanied his touring of the city became celebrities as well. Emperor Norton added Protector of Mexico to his title after the French invaded Mexico in 1861. In 1867, a policeman arrested Joshua Norton to commit him to treatment for a mental disorder. Local citizens and newspapers expressed extreme outrage. The San Francisco police chief Patrick Crowley ordered Norton released and issued a formal apology from the police force. The emperor granted a pardon to the policeman who arrested him. Although he remained impoverished, Norton frequently ate for free in the citys best restaurants. Seats were reserved for him at the openings of plays and concerts. He issued his own currency to pay his debts, and the notes were accepted in San Francisco as local currency. Photos of the emperor in his regal costume were sold to tourists, and Emperor Norton dolls were manufactured, too. In turn, he demonstrated his love for the city by declaring that using the word Frisco to refer to the city was a high misdemeanor punishable by a $25 fine. Official Acts as Emperor October 12, 1859: Formally abolished the U.S. Congress.December 2, 1859: Declared that Governor Henry Wise of Virginia should  leave the office for the execution of abolitionist John Brown and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky inaugurated in his place.July 16, 1860: Dissolved the United States of America.August 12, 1869: Dissolved and abolished the Democratic and Republican parties because of party strife.March 23, 1872: Ordered that a suspension bridge be built  as soon as possible from Oakland Point to Goat Island and on to San Francisco.September 21, 1872: Ordered a survey to determine whether a bridge or a tunnel was the best way to connect Oakland and San Francisco. Of course,  Joshua Norton did not yield any actual power to enforce these acts, so none were carried out. Death and Funeral On January 8, 1880, Joshua Norton collapsed on the corner of California and Dupont Streets. The latter is now named Grant Avenue. He was on his way to attend a lecture at the California Academy of Sciences. Police immediately sent for a carriage to take him to the City Receiving Hospital. However, he died before a carriage could arrive. A search of Nortons boarding house room after his death confirmed that he was living in poverty. He had approximately five dollars on his person when he collapsed and a gold sovereign worth approximately $2.50 was found in his room. Among his personal items were a collection of walking sticks, multiple hats and caps, and letters written to Queen Victoria of England. The first funeral arrangements planned to bury Emperor Norton I in a paupers coffin. However, the Pacific Club, a San Francisco businessmans association, elected to pay for a rosewood casket befitting a dignified gentleman. The funeral procession on January 10, 1880, was attended by as many as 30,000 of San Franciscos 230,000 residents. The procession itself was two miles long. Norton was buried in the Masonic Cemetery. In 1934, his casket was transferred, along with all other graves in the city, to Woodlawn Cemetery in Colma, California. Approximately 60,000 people attended the new internment. Flags across the city flew at half mast and the inscription on the new tombstone read, Norton I, Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico. Legacy Although many of Emperor Nortons proclamations were considered to be nonsensical ravings, his words about the construction of a bridge and subway to connect Oakland and San Francisco now appear prescient. The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge was completed on November 12, 1936. In 1969 the Transbay Tube was completed to host the Bay Area Rapid Transits subway service connecting the cities. It opened in 1974. An ongoing effort titled the Emperors Bridge Campaign has been launched to have Joshua Nortons name attached to the Bay Bridge. The group is also involved in efforts to research and document Nortons life to help preserve his memory. Emperor Norton in Literature Joshua Norton was immortalized in a wide range of popular literature. He inspired the character of the King in Mark Twains novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Mark Twain lived in San Francisco during part of Emperor Nortons reign. Robert Louis Stevensons novel The Wrecker, published in 1892, includes Emperor Norton as a character. The book was co-written with Stevensons stepson Lloyd Osbourne. It is the story of the solution of a mystery surrounding a wreck at the Pacific Ocean island Midway. Norton is considered to be a primary inspiration behind the 1914 novel The Emperor of Portugallia written by Swedish Nobel laureate Selma Lagerlof. It tells the story of a man who falls into a dream world where his daughter has become an empress of an imaginary nation, and he is the emperor. Contemporary Recognition In recent years, the memory of Emperor Norton has been kept alive throughout popular culture. He has been a subject of operas by Henry Mollicone and John S. Bowman as well as Jerome Rosen and James Schevill. American composer Gino Robair also wrote an opera I, Norton which has been performed in both North America and Europe since 2003. Kim Ohanneson and Marty Axelrod wrote Emperor Norton: A New Musical that ran for three months in 2005 in San Francisco. An episode of the classic TV western Bonanza told much of the story of Emperor Norton in 1966. The episode centers on an attempt to have Joshua Norton committed to a mental institution. Mark Twain makes an appearance to testify on Nortons behalf. The shows Death Valley Days and Broken Arrow also featured Emperor Norton. Joshua Norton is even included in video games. The Neuromancer game, based on the novel by William Gibson, includes Emperor Norton as a character. The popular historical game Civilization VI includes Norton as an alternate leader for the American civilization. The game Crusader Kings II includes Norton I as a former ruler of the Empire of California. Resources and Further Reading Drury, William. Norton I, Emperor of the United States. Dodd, Mead, 1986.